According to a report from the French intelligence services, before the Nazi-Soviet Pact of August 1939, most of the White Russians in France, even those who had no sympathy for National Socialist doctrines, considered that the Third Reich was the only dangerous opponent of Bolshevism. Following the signing of the Nazi-Soviet Pact, however, the Third Reich dissolved all Russian anti-Soviet organizations on its territory. In fact, a monument to Pushkin would have been built in Paris had not a dispute arisen with the Ministry of Fine Arts over its precise location. In 2010, he formed a rival organization called Friends of the Russian Cathedral to assist the Russian Embassy in its efforts to retrieve local heritage. Istanbul, which had a population of around 900,000 at that time, opened its doors to approximately 150 thousand White Russians. Russians quickly became the third-largest contingent of immigrants in Paris: at 51,578 individuals in 1929, they lagged behind only Italy and Poland. They are our honor and our justification (opravdanie) before the world. This Orders phantom political construction therefore seems to have been, above all, a hopeful means of influencing the Duce. Of those, an estimated 100,000 settled in China. It was from this community of Germanophile veterans that the approximately 700 White Russians who volunteered to fight in Spain for General Franco originated. This article contributes to the field by looking at White Russian monarchist circles based in France and their attraction to Nazi Germany. At 90, Orobchenko considers himself "the last White Russian of Clichy", a northern Paris suburb once home to a vibrant emigre community. In France, the Leagues Nice section was led by George Reno, the son of the former Nicaraguan consul in Odessa; the younger Reno had once acted as a strike breaker in Germany and dreamed of attracting both Action franaise militants and fascist Italians. 12, AN/1988206/7; A/S de Wladimir Krassinksy et de lUnion des Jeunes Russes, April 1932, 6 p., AN/20010216/283. Most migrs initially fled from Southern Russia and Ukraine to Turkey and then moved to other Slavic countries in Europe (the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, and Poland). [40] Indeed, after an initial Italian temptation, it was Germany that increasingly came to occupy the horizon of the Russian counterrevolutionaries. [57] DRG, Les migrs russes en France et linfluence hitlrienne sur leurs groupements, January 29, 1938, pp. The French Riviera was a favorite spot, where the European aristocracy had launched the fashion of the rainy season. A significant part of the coveted property being domiciled in Italy, the pretender wrote to Mussolini asking him to intervene on his behalf. [43] Above all, his motivations were more pecuniary than ideological. : [Z]. The White Russians who had settled in Germany pushed to mobilize for the Reich: General Pavel Bermondt-Avalov, who was the leader of the Nazi-controlled ROND in 1932-1933, sent his emissaries from Berlin to Paris. [23] The extent of Russian economic dominance of Harbin could be seen that Moya-tvoya", a pidgin language combining aspects of Russian and Mandarin Chinese which developed in the 19th century when Chinese went to work in Siberia was considered essential by the Chinese merchants of Harbin. Even before proclaiming himself tsar, Kirill appointed personal representatives throughout Europe (Germany, Austria, America, England, Bavaria, Finland, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Romania, Serbia, and Switzerland). The BRTs leader in France was General Piotr Krasnov, former Ataman of the Don Cossacks, who would be hanged by the Soviet regime in 1947 for having joined the Axis forces. This time, those who took refuge in Istanbul were the 'nobles' and soldiers of Tsarist Russia, who had fought the Ottomans for centuries. [7] Monuments for the war dead were often a way to symbolically recreate Russia abroad with example at the monument for those Russians killed while serving in the Russian Expeditionary Force (REF) in France at village of Mourmelon-le-Grand having a hermitage built near it together with transplanted fir trees and a Russian style farm to make it look like home. France 24 is not responsible for the content of external websites. Thanks to their shared anticommunism and antisemitism, friendly relations between the two parties developed quickly. [9] Personnalits politiques trangres qui furent victimes dattentats commis Paris au cours de ces dernires annes, March 20, 1930, 2 p., AN/F/7/13975/1. But just as Evie arrives, her grandmother becomes very ill. Sasha Sokolov (born in 1943 . [14] PP, report dated August 1933, 2 p., AN/19940500/306. Various youth organizations, such as the Scouts-in-Exile became functional in raising children with a background in pre-Soviet Russian culture and heritage. Pierre de Fermor, president of Nice's Friends of the Russian Cathedral, a pro-Moscow group. Masha's interviews and video footage . Factories welcomed Russian ex-soldiers as they tended to be hard-working and non-unionised, says Jevakhoff, himself the grandson of an imperial officer turned Parisian train station porter. The White Russians who fled to Germany, led by Kirill Vladimirovich, disapproved greatly of this newfound cordiality with the Soviets who had brought about their downfall. What are you reading? Veteran circles were particularly sensitive to Hitlers influence, and Nazi agents regularly visited the RNSUV in Paris. However, the groups name may have been mere fashion: until 1930, the individual in question had only ever expressed pro-monarchist views, and the organizations declaration of principles refers solely to royalty, with no mention of fascism. His regular trips to Berlin linked him to the Nazi party, and in particular to Paul Schulz, who came to be one of the Nazis main recruiting agents among Russian migrs from 1934.[60]. [38] Upon the death of its leader, Prince Alexander Lieven, a meeting took place in Berlin in 1937 at which Anatole Toll, a Finnish resident who seems to have worked for the French intelligence services in the mid-1920s, was appointed president. The productivity of the Russian press in France demonstrates real vitality, yet its offerings were divided into multiple small print runs. The Russian monarchists were convinced that such a partition would lead to a mass nationalist movement, allowing the Bavarian prince to carry out a coup dtat and establish monarchical rule over southern Germany, thus supporting the Kirillists campaign to pull Ukraine out of the Soviet Union and leading to the creation of a German-Russian restoration bloc. Russian counter-revolutionary migrs in France participated both in transnational organizations specifically dedicated to their national cause and in those that took a more global view of the fight against communism. [56] The difficulty for Solonevich seems to have been Rosenbergs demand for radical anti-Semitic propaganda. [15] When the memorial was opened in 1936, the Patriarch Varnava of the Serbian Orthodox Church declared in a speech opening it: "The Russians bore great sacrifices on our account wishing to defend Serbs at a time when powerful enemies attacked tiny Serbia from all sides. His children and grandchildren all speak Russian; Orobchenko married a Frenchwoman, but she proudly shows off pictures of the Russian cakes she bakes every Easter. [49] Alexandre Jevakhoff, Les Russes blancs (Paris: Tallandier, 2011). . 14 (2010): 551. Karl Schlgel (ed. He continued to use the formula The Tsar and the Soviets as his slogan. [5] PSC, report dated October 8, 1924, 4 p.; Les monarchistes russes et lItalie, November 9, 1922, AN/F/7/15943/1. Montparnasse was for the hoi polloifor rebels and misfits and down-and-outs, for creative artists long on talent but . The RRRA was established in late 1920, immediately after the White Army General Wrangel' s forces were evacuated from the Crimea and '200,000 refugees were added to the hundreds of thousands of the Russian migrs whom civil war had driven out of Russia [sic]' (Add MS 54466, ff. [31] Marc Swennen, Les mouvements anticommunistes dans les annes 1920,Courrier hebdomadaire du CRISP 2059, no. The moderates followed Archbishop Euloghi, who, being based in Paris, was neutral toward Soviet ecclesiastical institutions; ROVS leader General Aleksandr Kutepov demanded strenuously but in vain that Euloghi engage in anti-Soviet activities.[15]. Among them were members of the French Parti populaire of Jacques Doriot, a former communist leader who had turned to fascism. Vonsiastsky and Kazem-Beg were reportedly welcomed to Berlin by Goering and Rosenberg. In 1926, a new organization, the Russian Legitimist-Monarchist Union, was founded in Munich to bring together all the movements that supported Kirill Vladimirovich. [34], Some secret societies attracted the attention of the French authorities. [5] Eventually, beginning in 1925, Nikolais cancerto which he would succumb in 1929gave the advantage to the Kirill camp. [8] Moreover, the political assassinations of foreigners committed in Paris in the second half of the 1920s were mostly of Soviet refugees and Italian fascists[9]a phenomenon that was conducive to the rapprochement of these two groups. Five stories of White Russian migrs. A term preferred by the migrs themselves was first-wave migr (Russian: , emigrant pervoy volny), "Russian migrs" (Russian: , russkaya emigratsiya) or "Russian military migrs" (Russian: , russkaya voyennaya emigratsiya) if they participated in the White Russian movement. Let us earn the right not to blush, but be proud of our existence abroad. He had links with the Nazis, and while the organization may have regretted German excesses against Jews, it went on to roundly claim that the Jews had organized the Russian Revolution, that a majority of Soviet leaders were Jewish, and that they had unleashed violence on their population that would dwarf the violence meted out by the authorities of the Third Reich against the Jews. [citation needed]. Some began new lives in . Paris in the early 20th century became a refuge for Russians, whose culture enriched the city, writes Helen Rappaport in "After the Romanovs.". There were Russian-language newspapers and a radio station. The transition from a national anticommunist struggle liberating Russia from Soviet powerto a global one drew many Whites into the magnetic field of fascism. [48] Union des Young Russians, August 1933, 10 p., AN/20010216/282. [45] The Young Russians allegedly had contacts with fascist Germany and Italy, whose style they adopted. This astonished White Russians; many of those who had naturalized would join the French army. The Russian section of this unified organization was tasked with liberating Russia by joining an Anti-Comintern International, meant to bring together the religious, national, fascist, national socialist, popular, cultural forces of all countries.[51]. [53] Les migrs russes de France et le pacte germano-sovitique, October 26, 1939, p. 2, AN/20010216/282. She learned firsthand the stories of White Russian emigres who fled the Bolshevik revolution. Munich was a strategic choice, since the Bavarian monarchists also filled up the coffers of Kirills cause, making it possible for General Vasily Biskupskythe first White Russian to give unqualified support to Hitler and who also helped Kirill finance his rise to powerto organize this funding from Germany. At 90, Orobchenko considers himself "the last White Russian of Clichy", a northern Paris suburb once home to a vibrant emigre community. A Russian monastery in Mount Athos is registered as the owner, while the Turkish government recognizes only the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate as the authority over all Orthodox denominations in the country. Leben im europischen Brgerkrieg, Berlin: Akademie-Verlag 1995. [8] The sense of loss was not only for those the war monuments honored, but due to the sense of loss caused by defeat with a columnist in an migr newspaper in Paris writing about the dedication of a memorial to the REF in 1930: "We lost everything - family, economic situation, personal happiness, the homelandAre our sufferings good to anyone? The first arrivals found some jobs in the French and British representations, commissions, or alongside them in civil service, translator, or even military or security units in Istanbul.[31][32]. In Germany, Kaiser Wilhelm IIs constitutional monarchy was replaced in 1919 by a democratic parliamentary republic that later became known as the Weimar Republic. The county of Nice only came under French sovereignty in 1860, giving birth to the administrative department of the Maritime Alps. [47] Tranlation given by La Cte dmeraude, October 25, 1935. Its goal was allegedly to restore the Russian political and territorial order that had existed prior to February 1917 by forming an alliance with Germany, Japan, and Turkey. After the war, active anti-Soviet combat was almost exclusively continued by NTS: other organizations either dissolved, or began concentrating exclusively on self-preservation and/or educating the youth. [41] From 1940 to 1942, the Italian army occupied the eastern part of the department; Nice was fully absorbed when the occupation zone was extended to Switzerland. The publications of the Young Russians testify to a shift in 1938: if the consolidation of Germany had once appeared to be an asset to White Russians, the Reichs territorial ambitions over Ukraine now aroused concerns, with some Whites calling for an understanding between the USSR and the West. In 1924, he even sent his wife, Grand Duchess Victoria Melita of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha,to the United States to petition funding from Henry Ford, the anti-Semitic car magnate. Second and third-generation White Russians married locals and spoke French at home. According to the French intelligence services, the Reich hedged its bets on the prestigious thinker Ivan Solonevich, whom Alfred Rosenberg is said to have received in person in Berlin to offer him the leadership of a potential international philo-Nazi union of ex-Russian officers. The term "migr" is most commonly used in France, the United States, and the United Kingdom. In East Asia, White Russian ( Chinese: , Japanese: , ) is the term most commonly used for such Russian migrs, although some have been of Ukrainian and other ethnicities, and were not culturally Russians. [8] The prefect of the Maritime Alps to the Interior Minister, August 23, 1918, 2p., AN/20010216/282. Some sold books, some handcrafted souvenirs and some flowers. Their program was not one of restoration: The Young Russians, while defending the idea of a social monarchy (tsar and soviets), seek to collaborate with Russian nationalists who are working towards national recovery and defense.[47] They considered Stalins regime despotic but also thought that it had awakened national forces against machinism. The Young Russians believed that the revolution could only end with a social monarchy, a federated empire, and a managed economy.[48] In fact, Kazem-Beg made it his specialty to present Soviet policy in terms that were conducive to adoption by the Russian far right. [38] Wim Coudenys, Activisme politique et militaire dans lmigration russe : ralit ou sujet littraire? [54] The project was stillborn, but Solonevichs newspaper, Nasha gazeta, read in France mainly by former junior officers, still sided with the German camp,[55] as did Civilisation et bolchvisme, a Belgian White Russian newspaper published in France; Solonevich participated in and possibly also provided financial support to the latter publication. Both he and Melnik have visited Russia -- an experience they found exhilarating, though Melnik says that, at first, people were hostile when she explained her family history. These associations goal was to bring together all the groups, and especially to attract the most important association, ROVS,[16] which had 9,000 members in France and 35,000 worldwide. Joseph Douillet tried to integrate the International Anticommunist Entente (EIA), also known as the Aubert League after its founder. Here, in a bucolic and romantic setting, lie some of the greatest names in Russian art and culture, such as the writer Sergei Bulgakov, the artist Serge Poliakoff, and the ballet stars Serge Lifar and Rudolf Nureyev. The term is often broadly applied to . operation TREST and the Inner Line). [37] PP, A/S de la Confrrie de la Vrit Russe, August 1933, 10 p., AN/20010216/282. Sometimes the term is used to describe . Tens of White Army veterans (numbers vary from 72 to 180) served as volunteers supporting Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War. Die russische Emigration und ihre Zentren 19171941, Mnchen 1994. Cover photo: Made by John Chrobak using: Boulevard Courcelles Paris 20060503 1 by Georges Seguin CC BY-SA 3.0. The city itself is located less than 40 kilometers from the Italian border. These people formed organizations such as the Mladorossi, the Evraziitsi, and the Smenovekhovtsi. had larger Russian emigre populations. In a way, she says, "it felt like I never left.". [17] RG, Les migrs russes en France et linfluence hitlrienne sur leurs groupements, January 29, 1938, pp. The nature of the link between the Whites in France and Germany is well encapsulated by the Russian Fascist Party (Russkaia fashistkaia partiia, RFP). Source: Open source. The term is often broadly applied to anyone who may have left the country due to the change in regimes. Those who arrived in 1919 were better off economically. Solonevichs message enjoyed wide circulation: when Solonevich and his brother Boris went to France in 1937 to hold six talks, the RNSUV periodical Signal published their texts. Put another way, Russianswho accounted for 9.3% of foreigners in France at that timecomprised 90% of the countrys political immigrants. ), Russische Emigration in Deutschland 19181941. They spanned all classes and included military soldiers and officers, Cossacks, intellectuals of various professions, dispossessed businessmen and landowners, as well as officials of the Russian Imperial government and of various anti-Bolshevik governments of the Russian Civil War period. The French section was created in 1925. Globally, however, the rise of minorities secessionism was seen with suspicion; many White Russians believed that only Germany would protect the territorial integrity of Russia. First and foremost, the support structures for contenders to the Romanov throne were transnational. [17], In the fall of 1937, the RSNUV attempted a new unifying process, this time at a meeting in Berlin with the leaders of the All-Russian Fascist Party and the Russian National Socialist Party. 1920. The Union of the Russian Empire, founded in 1928 as the discreetly pro-Kirill Russian Empire Union, had only 200 members spread across Paris, Nice, Belgium, Bulgaria, China, the United States, and Poland; some of its members went to fight for General Franco. Le Combat des Russes blancs 19301940, p.18 (Geneva: Syrtes, 2007). Some did find professional work, teaching music or French. [36] The archives AN/20010216/282 contain several communiqus from the CVR translated by the PP. [62] Kazem-Beg, for his part, reacted to the invasion of Poland not by supporting German and Soviet policies, but instead by sending a telegram of support to the President of the French Council, ending with these words: I wish to renew in the name of the Young Russian Movement our commitment to fight alongside France against our implacable enemy, Germany. With the arrival of the railway in 1865, the city became a seaside resort popular with wealthy English and Russian visitors, leading to strong economic and demographic development. Many white migrs believed that their mission was to preserve the pre-revolutionary Russian culture and way of life while living abroad, in order to return this influence to Russian culture after the fall of the USSR. Internal processes of socio-political control were also developed: in 1935, a popular restaurant was opened in Paris for all unemployed Ukrainian workers in need, with the notable exception of communists.[2]. Montparnasse, the heart of bohemian caf society in Paris, was a far cry from the grand mansions of Boulogne-sur-Seine or the richer districts of Passy and Auteuil inhabited by the Russian denizens of Belle poque Paris. Many military and civil officers living, stationed, or fighting the Red Army across Siberia and the Russian Far East moved together with their families to Harbin (see Harbin Russians), to Shanghai (see Shanghai Russians) and to other cities of China, Central Asia, and Western China. By the mid-1930s there were two Russian schools, as well as a variety of cultural and sporting clubs. Paris and the Russian exiles, 1920-1945, Kingston 1988: McGill-Queen's University Press. He was also supported by General Piotr Wrangel, who had agreed to proclaim Nikolai leader of the Russian All-Military Union (Russkii obshchevoinskii soiuz, ROVS).[4]. During and after World War II, many Russian migrs moved to the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Peru, Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, South Africa and Australia where many of their communities still exist in the 21st century. [64] Au sujet de la propagande allemande auprs des Russes tablis en France, May 27, 1940, AN/20010216/283. Premire parution : Nicolas Lebourg, White Russian migrs and International Anti-Communism in France (1918-1939), IERES Occasional Papers, no. [11] PP, La franc-maonnerie russe, August 1933, 2 p., AN/19940500/306. Five years earlier, the estimated number of members was 90,000, including 20,000 in Yugoslavia and France, concentrated in the Paris region and the Moselle-Maritime Alps axis; 50,000 in China; 5,000 in Prague and Sofia; 3,000 in New York; 500 in Berlin; 400 in Brussels and Charleroi; 200 in Lausanne and Geneva; and 100 in Vienna (PP, Union Centrale russe, August 1933, pp. [10] PP, A/S de lUnion des chevaliers de lOrdre militaire imprial russe de Saint-Georges, November 6, 1939, 3 p., AN/19940497/70; Ibid., Un entretien avec le Grand-duc Cyrille, November 9, 1922, AN/F/7/15943/1. 2023 Copyright France 24 - All rights reserved. [26] During the war, the white migrs came into contact with former Soviet citizens from German-occupied territories who used the German retreat as an opportunity to either flee from the Soviet Union, or were in Germany and Austria as POWs and forced labor, and preferred to stay in the West, often referred to as the second wave of migrs (often also called DPs displaced persons, see Displaced persons camp). Having lost Paris support, France-based White Russians turned to the political opposition for support. M. V. Nazarov, The Mission of the Russian Emigration, Moscow: Rodnik, 1994. Many men became career soldiers of the Shanghai Russian Regiment, the only professional/standing unit within the Shanghai Volunteer Corps. [1] This factor is more acute evidence than the electoral results of the French section of the Communist International (9.82% of votes in the legislative elections in 1924, 15.26% in 1936), which had long faced difficulties due to the isolationist strategy of Communism in One Country. Frances institutions functioned largely on a two-round electoral system, and it was traditional for left-wing candidates to stand down in order to place themselves in the best position. when he spoke at the war monument in Valenciennes: "Blood spilled on the soil of beautiful and glorious France is the best atmosphere to unite France forever with a Russia national and worthy". They made connections with several factions of the French extreme right, including the largest far-right organization at the time, Action Franaise. The White emigration was the first and biggest of the four waves of Russian emigration, with nearly two million people leaving the country between 1917 and 1923. For the International Anticommunist Entente, the Pact was a ploy by Germany to destroy Western democracies and bring about world revolution. [16] Karel Kram, a wealthy conservative Czechoslovak politician and a Russophile worked together with Russian migrs to build an Orthodox church in Prague which Kram called in his opening speech "a monument of Slavic connection" and to "remind Russians not only of their former sufferings but also about the recognition on the side of the Slavs". Many White Russian migrs participated in the White movement or supported it. [14] A planned Orthodox church to honor the Russian prisoners who died in an Austrian POW camp outside Osijek would have featured busts of the Emperor Nicholas II, King Peter I and King Alexander to emphasis how the Houses of Romanov and Karaorevi had been allied in the war, linking the Russian and Serbian experiences of the war. An enchanting, suspenseful novel of love, art, music, and family secrets set among the Russian migr community of Paris in 1937 The White Russian by Vanora Bennett begins as Evie, a rebellious young American, leaves New York in search of art and adventure in Jazz Age Paris, home to her long-estranged bohemian grandmother. [13] Many noble titles were usurped, a fact that underlined both the social weight of the Russian nobility and its decomposition. "He really wanted to give something back to France, to thank the country for welcoming him," Melnik says. In 1924, the Chinese government recognized the government of the Soviet Union and the majority of White Russians in China who refused to become Soviet citizens were rendered stateless, thus subject to Chinese law unlike other Europeans, Americans, and Japanese living in China who enjoyed the principles of extraterritoriality. Some migrs also fled to Portugal, Spain, Romania, Belgium, Sweden, Switzerland, and Italy. According to a German document that circulated in French diplomatic and police circles in 1920, the Socit des Fidles (Society of the Faithful) was an esoteric, subversive organization that, based in Germany, claimed to have members from Paris to Moscow. [4] Police spciale des Chemins de fer et de la frontire (PSC), report dated October 8, 1924, 4 p.; Les monarchistes russes et lItalie, November 9, 1922, AN/F/7/15943/1. They used the pre-revolutionary tricolor (white-blue-red) as their flag, for example, and some organizations used the ensign of the Imperial Russian Navy. [22] Nicolas Glady, Les partis monarchistes russes migres Paris 19191939, Bulletin de lInstitut Pierre Renouvin 9 (2000): 84100. Constantinople would serve as one transit point for the estimated one million people who fled the Bolsheviks after 1917, but it was to Paris and Berlin that many were headed as they scrambled to . As being temporarily deprived of our Motherland let us save in our ranks not only faith in her, but an unbending desire towards feats, sacrifice, and the establishment of a united friendly family of those who did not let down their hands in the fight for her liberation, The migrs formed various organizations for the purpose of combatting the Soviet regime such as the Russian All-Military Union, the Brotherhood of Russian Truth, and the NTS. This transition from a national to a global struggle drew many Whites from the anti-communist camp into the magnetic field of fascism. [42] A key concern for the French intelligence services was the potential rapprochement between Russian and Italian emigrants to the benefit of fascist Italyfor a fascist dynamic was sweeping through the various Russian groups, thanks first to their attraction to Italy and then to the polarizing effect of Nazism. [15] PP, A/S de effervescence dans les milieux croyants de lmigration russe, January 14, 1930, 3 p., AN/19940500/35. As the decades passed, emigres blended in with the locals. [50] According to its call published in Signal, the RNSUV newspaper in France, this unification began with the agreement remotely sponsored by Berlin between the Russian Fascist Party (based in Harbin), the National Labor Union of the New Generation (Natsionalno-trudovoi soiuz novogo pokoleniia, NTSNP, based in Belgrade), the Russian Liberation National Movement (Rossiiskoe osvoboditelnoe natsionalnoe dvizhenie) (ROND, based in Berlin), and the RNSUV. Karlinsky, Simon Freedom from Violence and Lies: Essays on Russian Poetry and Music, Boston, Academic Studies Press, 2013. 1011, AN/20010216/282. However, if dynastic competition was a matter that mobilized the diaspora globally, the debate over the succession essentially took place between Paris and Munich. [24] SN, Le Grand-duc Cyrille, June 15, 1922; Monarchistes russes (parti du grand-duc Cyrille), January 30, 1923; Ibid., February 8, 1924; Le gnral Biskoupsky, agent principal du Grand-duc Cyrille, June 5, 1923; Les monarchistes russes et la Rpublique rhnane, August 20, 1923; Manifeste de lEmpereur de la Russie, September 1924, 2p.; Action des monarchistes russes, December 16, 1924, AN/F/7/15943/1.
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