Behav Sci (Basel). Moreover, even if behaviors are affecting cognitive performance through a more nebulous channel than raw intellectual ability (i.e., through more robust executive function and impulse control), ultimately they still produce measurable effects on assessment and can be considered net positive or negative. WebRecent research including meta-analyses have clearly underlined the negative impact of seated occupational activities on overall mortality (11, 12). negative effects of visible leisure. Outdoor recreation in protected areas negatively impacts wildlife According to some studies, the In our verbal outcome specifications, time in school is highly significant in each. We then coupled these daily county-level values of sunlight to the PSID CDS based on the individual days when the time diaries were completed and the places children lived using a restricted access version of the core data. Still, even with modest convergence, adolescents with college-educated caregivers in 2014 spend more than a half hour less engaging in sedentary behavior per day than their peers. Our core data come from the original CDS module of the PSID (Panel Study of Income Dynamics 2017). (The CDS does include general information on the genre of television programs children consumed, but only for the 1997 and 2002 waves.) Barrington-Leigh, Christopher, and Fatemeh Behzadnejad. * p < .05 ** p < .01 *** p < .001 (two-tailed tests). Direct correspondence to Tom Laidley, 295 Lafayette St, New York, NY 10012; tel. /Filter /FlateDecode Next, the negative effects of casual, serious, and project-based leisure are taken up. Meanwhile, some leisure is intolerably deviant, whereas other activities are new to society and are therefore in the course of being examined by the general public for their moral implications. Another quality that characterizes some leisure is its annoyingness. << WebAim: Many older adults face limitations to participating in active leisure activities as a result of their physical constraints from aging. ;woW5un57t\wzj#1'Rke7loqS;mam*I_]z+=[n&]?HS;mam+/vlwOs>Q>K/vlwOs>Q>K/vlwOs>Q>K+RI$I$_ %PDF-1.2 /Length 21 0 R 2009). Baseline differences in test performance (i.e., before entering kindergarten) between white and black children, to take one example, are often found to be as large as a full standard deviation (Bond and Lang 2013). Sex-based gaps also increased noticeably, as girls were less sedentary and consumed less media in 2014 compared to 2007, while boys behavior was stable or only trivially declined. If children are customarily indoors and relatively inactive whatever their background, why might we see such a difference in effect sizes? Outdoor recreational activities are increasing worldwide and occur at high frequency especially close to cities. The contribution of the smartphone use to reducing depressive symptoms of Chinese older adults: The mediating effect of social participation. Leisure time activity is often positioned as a key factor in child development, yet we know relatively little about the causal significance of various specific activities or the magnitude of their effects. active leisure activities; life satisfaction; older adults; passive leisure activities. We also find that sedentary and screen time use exhibit more substantial effects among children with less educated caregivers and girls, and speculate that time use gaps, opportunity cost structures (i.e., the range of alternative activities), and the differential sensitivity of behavior to weather conditions among subgroups may play a role in the stratified results. >> A full table of our time use variables and their stratified descriptive statistics across the three waves is located in the online appendix (appendix table S1). 10 0 obj 2016; Weininger, Lareau, and Conley 2015). While we make every attempt to account for these factors conceptually and empirically, because one cannot prove that the exclusion criteria are met, the possibility remains that there is some latent bias that drives our results. In addition to differences in cognitive performance, some cross-sectional and RCT studies also find physical, structural differences in brain integrity between more and less fit children (e.g., white or gray matter volume) (Erickson, Hillman, and Kramer 2015). We merge a restricted access version of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) Child Development Supplement (CDS), longitudinally collected from 1997 to 2007, with a database of over three million county-day observations of sunlight. Alexander, Karl L., Doris R. Entwisle, and Linda S. Olson. These differences in measured cognition reverberate through the life course, and have been implicated in reduced intergenerational mobility and flatter wage trajectories among African Americans, controlling for other significant factors in achievement like grades and attitudinal traits (Bhattacharya and Mazumder 2011; Hall and Farkas 2011). and transmitted securely. For instance, we might expect less sunlight during a storm spell to result in more sedentary time at home, and less time engaging in physical activity outdoors. /Filter /FlateDecode That is, we cannot distinguish whether, for example, the connection between physical activity and cognitive performance is more straightforwardly physiological (e.g., through concrete channels like brain structure or enhanced executive functioning) or psychological (by being beneficial in themselves or substituting for other behaviors that may offer negative psychic and cognitive value). There are three possible sources of variation in sunlight from wave to wave in our data: 1) the effect of children moving to a qualitatively different climate across waves (e.g., testing in May 1997 and 2002, but having moved from Vermont to Arizona in the interim); 2) the broader changes in weather due to taking the test in different seasonal conditions (e.g., testing in December 1997 and June 2002); and 3) the random weather perturbations that the jagged edges of the curves in figure 1 represent (e.g., engaging in activity and testing during a seasonably sunny few days in May 1997, and then again during a frost in May 2002). Tom Laidley is a PhD candidate in sociology at New York University. Here, we couple individual fixed effects and instrumental variable approaches in trying to determine whether specific forms of leisure contribute to gains in test performance over time. Finally, due to the realities of the data we use, we cannot detail the mechanisms of the causal process we are trying to capture. Graham, J. W., Allison E. Olchowski, and Tamika D. Gilreath. Physical activity lowers blood pressure , which is one of the major contributing factors to cardiovascular events. We find evidence that physical and outdoor activity positively influence math performance, while sedentary behavior and screen time exhibit the opposite effect. We found no noticeable difference in results by excising homework time and confining the measure to the length of the school day alone. Yet other experimental research has found that even very short exposures (i.e., minutes, not hours) to high-intensity media can depress the executive functioning in children (Lillard and Peterson 2011), negatively mirroring related RCT study findings in physical activity. << We restricted the 2014 CDS descriptive estimates to children above 10 so they are comparable in age to the 2007 wave (when the youngest children in our sample were about 10 years old). Specifications that were not bounded by lag time restrictions produced substantively similar results, but with smaller coefficients and greater precision, consistent with the growth in sample size and reduced signal after including cases where testing substantially lags or precedes treatment. Effects of Leisure Participation on Life Satisfaction in Older Korean Adults: A Panel Analysis. The mere presence of people in forests can disturb wildlife, which may perceive humans as potential predators. One reason could be a systematic difference in opportunity cost structures, such that some children are substituting active behavior for less productive time use. Even when attrition is properly accounted for, estimates will be biased if missingness is not randomly determined, and involve a factor that also affects cognitive performance. Would you like email updates of new search results? His other interests include housing affordability and the growth and development of cities and the regions they anchor. We may see differences among our subsamples because, for example, higher-SES kids are engaging in relatively productive or cognitively active sedentary behaviors like conversing with their siblings as opposed to sitting alone watching television. We also include a five-year rolling average of real family income preceding the measurement year, and the poverty rate of the home census tract as a proxy for neighborhood conditions. That is, the brain seems to work harder in certain seasons than it does in others to exhibit stable performance, with the only difference being in energy expenditure. Significant baseline differences among high- and low-SES toddlers have been found as early as 18 months (Fernald, Marchman, and Wiesleder 2013), and indeed may be large enough in magnitude to largely account for the lag in US educational assessment compared to similar industrialized countries (Merry 2013). endobj Whether this is more purely physiological in origin or a reflection of the different psychological effects certain behaviors have on development is an open question, and fertile ground for future research. Additionally, we include a suite of household shocks which are linked in the literature to either childhood development or other fundamentals like family SES status, including indicators of an additional birth (Sandberg and Rafail 2014), the departure of a parent from the household (Tach 2015), and whether the family changed residence from a prior wave (Jelleyman and Spencer 2008). For instance, black-white and college-no college gaps in math performance and sedentary behavior shrank from 2007 to 2014. In fact, short-duration StS should be included as an important warm-up component before the uptake of recreational sports activities due to its potential positive effect on flexibility and musculotendinous injury 6 0 obj /Width 29 Khn, Simone, Tobias Gleich, Robert C. Lorenz, U. Lindenberger, and Jurgen Gallinat. Passive leisure activities become alternative leisure activities for older adults as a result of limited physical capacity. endstream Lillard, Angeline S., and Jennifer Peterson. Sunlight also plays a key role in the formation of ozone (O3) from the environmental precursors of volatile organic compounds (VOC), carbon dioxide (CO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and these chemical reactions are accelerated in higher temperatures. For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription. endobj 2017 Mar 1;10(2):67-75. doi: 10.3928/19404921-20170224-01. Meanwhile, public health research in this vein is largely concerned with the division between active and sedentary forms of leisure time expenditure, rather than the formal-informal distinction. Though vitamin D is integral to skeletal health, it does play a role in neurological development and its deficiency tends to be associated with neuropsychiatric disorders (Eyles et al. The negative effect of sedentary behavior is less substantial, but still accounts for a reduction of about a fifth of a standard deviation with each additional hour. *:JZjz ? ;woW5un57t\wzj#1'Rke7loqS;mam*I_]z+=[n&]?HS;mam+/vlwOs>Q>K/vlwOs>Q>K/vlwOs>Q>K+RI$I$_ Yet other research which specifically examines the impact of educational programming (e.g., Sesame Street) finds positive and significant effects, signaling the importance of content (Mares and Pan 2013). We find robustly positive effects of physical activity and outdoor activity on math scores, with the opposite true for sedentary behavior and screen time. Some Practical Clarifications of Multiple Imputation Theory, Adolescent Cognitive Skills, Attitudinal/Behavioral Traits and Career Wages, Economic Growth in Developing Countries: The Role of Human Capital, The Dynamics of Criminal Behavior: Evidence from Weather Shocks, Does Cultural Capital Really Affect Academic Achievement? For total screen time, the effect size is a more modest reduction of about one-fifth of a standard deviation with each additional daily hour. Other reviews of medium-term interventions find more general positive cognitive effectsthat is, across domains that include academic skillsbut effect sizes differ widely among the studies (Lees and Hopkins 2013). This suggests that even halving the time spent engaging in sedentary behavior or consuming electronic media could manifest in significant math gains. 2023 Mar 29;13(4):293. doi: 10.3390/bs13040293. Strategies that decrease sedentary time and promote physical activity in its place may have a particularly robust impact on confronting these pernicious inequalities of achievement. The signal between behavior and cognitive achievement would be weakened in these subgroups, and thus perhaps not broadly relevant in terms of policy because changing behaviors would only affect children whose behavior is sensitive to environmental conditions. The first two represent the most obvious potential sources of bias. In 1997, the CDS component collected additional data on children (newborns to 12-year-olds) and their parents or guardians. 12 0 obj Res Gerontol Nurs. TABLE 3 Table 3. In table 1, we present our core results on the effects of physical, outdoor, and sedentary activity on math scores. Keywords: endobj Time use patterns among children have long been a popular empirical concern in light of their intuitively influential contributions to developmental trajectory. Madestam, Andreas, Daniel Shoag, Stan Veuger, and David Yanagizawa-Drott. Yet these cognitive improvements may be attributable merely to the timing of the test further along in the school year in the second wave, and the substantial accumulation of knowledge children exhibit by virtue of the additive gains they experience as the school year progresses (Fitzpatrick, Grissmer, and Hastedt 2011). Liddle, 1975, Cole and Bayfield, 1993 laid the foundations for this research field (While there is no clear consensus value, specialists generally recommend first-stage F statistics of the excluded instrument above 10 [Stock, Wright, and Yogo 2002].) Because time diaries were assigned based on randomly selected dates, we assume no systematic relationship between when behavior was measured and any relevant demographic correlates. << The collection of data used in this study was partly supported by the National Institutes of Health under grant number R01-HD069609 and the National Science Foundation under award number 1157698. This work was supported by the MacArthur Foundation Connected Learning Research Network. To capture the effect of sunlight on behavior, we use daily historical records of insolation (sunlight measured in kilojoules per square meter at the county level), collected as part of the North America Land Data Assimilation System (NLDAS) and disseminated by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) Wonder database (Centers for Disease Control 2017). In this paper we use individual-level fixed effects coupled with a quasi-experimental research design, instrumenting active and sedentary behaviors with sunlight in trying to determine the cognitive effects of time use. Front Public Health. >> Some of the data used in this analysis are derived from Restricted Data Files of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, obtained under special contractual arrangements designed to protect the anonymity of the respondents. WebLoneliness observed to be related to many factors such as depression, desolation, hopelessness, low level of self-esteem, low level of life satisfaction, adaptation difficulty, Finally, we control for educational time, consisting of the total time in school and doing homework summed together. This raises the possibility of a selection bias mechanism whereby higher-ability children spend more time sedentary or consuming media. Published by Oxford University Press. << Off, Morten K., Arnfinn E. Steindal, Alina C. Porojnicu, Asta Juzeniene, Alexander Vorobey, Anders Johnsson, and Johan Moan. McKnight, P. E., K. M. McKnight, S. Sidani, and A. J. Figueredo. The negative effect of sedentary behavior is less substantial, but still accounts for a reduction of about a fifth of a standard deviation with each additional hour. Research in the theoretical tradition of Bourdieu has long stressed the importance of activities geared toward curating a disposition suitable for succeeding in school and navigating institutions later in life, like engagement with high art, music, and literature (DiMaggio 1982). % We thank Sandra Hofferth, Annette Lareau, Elliott B. Weininger, the members of the Connected Learning Research Network, and participants from the Child/Youth/Adolescents 2017 Health, Bodies, and Wellbeing ASA paper session for their critiques on earlier drafts of this manuscript. Cutaneous exposure to ultraviolet light has long been recognized as degrading folic acidor B9, an essential vitamin that acts as a precursor to DNA methylationin both clinical trials and in vivo (Off et al. Estimates based on a convergence in active and sedentary time use as the school year progresses and the weather gets sunnier would be biased if the real driver of improving test scores is simply having had a longer time in school since the prior summer within each wave. For practical purposes, we believe our findings lend further support to the general notion that, ceteris paribus, physical activity seems to generally be a positive factor in child development, while sedentary and screen behavior seem to evince the opposite effect. We use weekday measures of time use, and necessarily exclude summer vacation as the CDS was administered only during the school year. Aside from cross-sectional correlates, which are suggestive of better overall health profiles and the long-run lifestyle differences they reflect, other work finds that even relatively modest short-term interventions in physical activity can manifest in changes in measured cognitive function. Kent, Shia T., Leslie A. McClure, William L. Crosson, Donna K. Arnett, Virginia G. Wadley, and Nalini Sathiakumar. /Name /im2 Strain, Kristina Pentieva, and H. McNulty. Clifford, Angela, Linda Lang, Ruoling Chen, Kaarin J. Anstey, and Anthony Seaton. The effects of sedentary behavior and screen time are particularly meaningful, given that by the 2007 wave, the adolescents in our data spent over 2.5 hours each day performing these passive leisure activities. 11 0 obj endstream 2005). Our results also have implications for achievement gaps documented in the social science literature. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. /Filter /DCTDecode Conceptually, we intuit that short- and medium-run changes in sunlight result in consequent reductions or increases in specific forms of leisure activity over the same time period, which then may have short- and medium-run cognitive effects. stream That is, because we deliberately exclude many kinds of behavior that could fall under the outside/active (e.g., walking to or from school) or sedentary (e.g., doing homework on the couch) categories, reductions in one do not necessarily lead to increases in the other. Future work in the social sciences could integrate these differences in active and passive leisure into theoretical models that seek to explain why life chances so noticeably diverge among children. This leaves open the possibility that a different estimation strategy may uncover significant relationships between time use and cognition among the children of college-educated parents that we do not observe here. The present study sought to determine whether there exists a difference in the frequency of participation in passive and active leisure activities, and the effect of participation in passive and active leisure activities on the life satisfaction level of old adults. For instance, girls are over three times more sensitive to the effects of screen time than boys, yet the latter consume 2540 percent more depending on the wave. These initial advantages extend into college enrollment and degree attainment, with sex-based achievement gaps continuing to widen both within and between birth cohorts (Buchmann and DiPrete 2006). Quasi-experimental studies on the cognitive effects of computer use have found that effects are largely null (Fairlie and Robinson 2013), or negative but modest in magnitude (Vigdor, Ladd, and Martinez 2014). For instance, we may find that children who have their time use and cognitive performance measured in December in the first wave and June in the second exhibit an increase in active behavior and a co-occurring growth in cognitive performance. FE-IV Results Stratified by Primary Caregivers Education. >> a !1AQa"q2B#$Rb34rC%Scs5&DTdEt6UeuF'Vfv7GWgw(8HXhx )9IYiy Our imputed specifications in table 1 produce substantively similar estimates, which suggest that data missingness is not systematically biasing our core results. Dalton Conley is the Henry Putnam University Professor in Sociology and a faculty affiliate at the Office of Population Research and the Center for Health and Wellbeing. Borghans, Lex, Bart H H Golsteyn, James Heckman, and John E. Humphries. Our research suffers from various limitations that render our results provisional. New Evidence from Combined Sibling and Panel Data, Residential Mobility in Childhood and Health Outcomes: A Systematic Review, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, Changes in Income-Based Gaps in Parent Activities with Young Children from 1988 to 2012, A Warm Heart and a Clear Head: The Contingent Effects of Weather on Mood and Cognition, Effect of Sunlight Exposure on Cognitive Function Among Depressed and Non-Depressed Participants: A REGARDS Cross-Sectional Study, Playing Super Mario Induces Structural Brain Plasticity: Gray Matter Changes Resulting from Training with a Commercial Video Game, Social Class and the Daily Lives of Children: A Study from the United States, Invisible Inequality: Social Class and Childrearing in Black Families and White Families, Rainmakers: Why Bad Weather Means Good Productivity, The Clustering of Diet, Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior in Children and Adolescents: A Review, International Journal of Behavior Nutrition and Physical Activity, Effect of Aerobic Exercise on Cognition, Academic Achievement, and Psychosocial Function in Children: A Systematic Review of Randomized Control Trials, The Immediate Impact of Different Types of Television on Young Childrens Executive Function, Exercise and Cognitive Function: A Randomized Controlled Trial Examining Acute Exercise and Free-Living Physical Activity and Sedentary Effects, Acute Effects of Moderate Aerobic Exercise on Specific Aspects of Executive Function in Different Age and Fitness Groups: A Meta-Analysis, Height and Earnings: The Role of Cognitive and Noncognitive Skills, Do Political Protests Matter? Prior work on leisure time expenditure expectedly illustrates a positive association between sunlight and physical and outdoor activity, with the opposite for sedentary behavior and screen time (Lee, Gino, and Staats 2014; Zivin and Neidell 2014). Keller, Matthew C., Barbara L. Frederickson, Oscar Ybarra, Stphane Ct, Kareem Johnson, Joe Mikels, Anne Conway, and Tor Wager. While more immediate effects are difficult to estimate, extant work tends to show that childhood exposure to these compounds is associated with reduced academic achievement and cognitive functioning, as well as with accelerated decline later in the life course (Clifford et al. In the FE methodological framework, each respondent effectively acts as their own control by only considering within-child variation in behaviors, covariates, and test scores over time, and as a matter of course accounts for stable characteristics like race, birthweight, or sex. Jacob, Brian, Lars Lefgren, and Enrico Moretti. Bailey, Martha J., and Susan M. Dynarski. government site. Other work finds that temperatures above 70F tend to induce negative emotions, while even particularly cold weather (<20F) is associated with higher subjective well-being (Noelke et al. Adobe d C (2009) find that among adults over 45, sunlight is positively associated with cognitive assessment, but only among individuals suffering from depression. In our data, black-white and caregiver college/no college math score gaps are about four-fifths and two-thirds of a standard deviation, respectively, which is broadly consistent with recent estimates of school readiness differences by race and income among similarly aged cohorts (Reardon and Portilla 2015). /Name /im1 eCollection 2022. Thus for certain subpopulations, narrowing time use differences among children may aid in helping shrink gaps in assessment and academic achievement more generally. Methods: Note: Cluster-robust standard errors are in parentheses. We Recent research, however, suggests that vitamin D deficiency among blacks may be an artifact of conventional testing methods, and that levels of bioavailable 25-hydroxyvitamin D are similar to whites due to the presence of a related hormone marker that is not customarily measured (Powe et al. MeSH Whether the convergence in time use among subgroups or positive trends in behavior compared to earlier cohorts manifest in any measurable effect on test performance gaps either in the PSID or more broadly is an open question.
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